Introduction 3

The evolution in quality is due, however, to technology, and to the change of shape of the objects produced. During the time lapse the technologicalaesthetic improvement of the ceramics found in the most important centres of production throughout the Peninsular, is evident above all in the production of maiolica.

The expectancy that city salary earners had for a better economic situation and the concomitant demographic crisis, described by writers of the same generation like Boccaccio and demonstrated by economic historians like Abel, accentuated the idea of reaching a decent lifestyle for some of the social groups was in this way possible. By the consequent lowering of the social prestige of certain objects, among which the traditional archaic maiolica — the only enamelled ceramic in circulation at that time and, for this reason, considered a luxury item — now became more accessible.
This growth could have induced a diversification of the offer as a counteraction to the new demand for quality.

zoom	Filippo Brunelleschi e Francesco della Luna portico dell’Ospedale degli Innocenti di Firenze 1419-39

Together with the new economic situation, not only determined by the demographic void created not just by the acute stage of the plague in 1348-49 but also by the endemic rooting of the illness in the cities, were probably the reasons why the so called “international gothic” style spread in the arts. It was a formal elegant style, rich with ideological references and at the time incisive, but which, in our eyes, may appear decadent.
For Italian ceramic craftsmen of that period, an aesthetic improvement of enamelled products, implied using the whitest surface possible. A technological tradition, developed at the end of the 12th century in the so called “graffite tirreniche” (scratching) was re-appropriated in the “proto-maiolica” phase, a phase which had already experimented the technique of the white paste spread over the vessels before the first firing, that is, the white “ingobbio” technique.
This procedure underwent a period of adjustment in some areas of production, in particular, in the Senese centres and in Southern Tuscany. Only later was this procedure consecrated by technical writers like Biringuccio in De pirothecnica.

In the Florentine area, instead, a completely different method was adopted to achieve the same results. Instead of using a whitish “ingobbio” paste on the surface of the clay objects ready for firing, whose prime material was extracted or collected from the local quarries and yielded a reddish shade, the clay itself was lightened as much as possible.
A similar chromatic correction could have been obtained by adding calcium, probably in the form of lumps of lime, during the phases of cleaning and ‘maturing’.
This technical development, characterises the difference between maiolica produced in the Florentine area from that of most contemporary Senese and Pisan products. It began during the last twenty years of the 14th century and, after a long period of experimentation, was concluded by the middle of the 15th century. The intrinsic quality of the new whitish paste was, in the end, generally adopted in the “Florentine” genre from the beginning of the 15th century. The blend of different components in the mixture reached its maximum balance in this same period and was, perhaps, the result of an appropriate and skilful procedure of maturation. A harder and more compact supporting base was, thus, obtained in comparison to the one used during the previous thirty years of the century.

It is difficult to say how much this technique originated locally or came from other traditions such as Spain or Islam.
We know that clay mixing, not only for their thermal qualities but with the scope of favouring the glazed coating, was a current process of Eastern ceramists and probably of North African craftsmen, too. This can already be seen in the late 13th century, in the “Pula” type maiolica from Eastern Spain, a “sandwiched” composition apparent after the first firing. When seen in crosssection, the outlines are highlighted where in contact with the glaze, while the inside is orange coloured. Without specific documentation it is believed that the creation of the whitish base originated from the local experiments in the Florentine area, but it cannot be excluded they were imitations of those from other places in the Mediterranean, particularly from Spain.

Together with the tin used in the production stage, a better quality of glazing gave purer whiteness to the finished product, in so much that the finishing effect did not depend on the contrast (“ingobbio”) but to the original whitish support, giving the Florentine craftsmen a greater advantage. The amalgamation of the glaze and the “ingobbio” where the adhesion of the selenium-metallic layer to the support, often caused other problems, the clay with calcium mixture, ART AND LIFE: “RENAISSANCE OF MAIOLICA” 41 favoured the fixing of the glazing. During the first firing, the surface covered with this rich calcium paste, naturally screened for the loss of gas, and having this small web of microscopic holes, permitted the glaze to adhere.

Unfortunately, it is impossible to know where this process of treating clay (also used for higher quality products in the Senese area) originated from. From our knowledge of the energy and precocity the ceramists from Bacchereto had and from their travels, the honour might be given to those valid craftsmen, but this hypothesis cannot be confirmed without specific documentation.
The perfection of the clay mixture at the base of this whitening could have come from an outside source to Montalbano.

It, nonetheless, had an effect on the vase-makers who moved from Bacchereto to other places, especially to Florence, in the second half of the 14th century. So the diffusion of this technique was a merit of these and other craftsmen.
A great development in ceramic technology did, however, take place in Florence, even though no recordings of its qualitative turnout have yet been found. The regional archives throw further light on the importance this change had on the developing market in the 14th century.
The technological development of these years, that is, this new whitish glaze obtained after the first firing process of Florentine vases, obviously influenced other significant innovations. The quality and quantity of this glazing also had an impact on the significant introduction of cobalt blue decoration.